1. The Parties should protect the climate  system for the benefit of present and future generations of humankind, on the  basis of equity and in accordance with their common but differentiated  responsibilities and respective capabilities. Accordingly, the developed country Parties should take the lead in combating climate change and the  adverse effects thereof.
2.         
3. The specific needs and special  circumstances of developing country Parties, especially those that are  particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change, and of those  Parties, especially developing country Parties, that would have to bear a  disproportionate or abnormal burden under the Convention, should be given full  consideration.
4. The Parties should take precautionary measures to anticipate, prevent or minimize  the causes of climate change and mitigate its adverse effects. Where there are  threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty  should not be used as a reason for postponing such measures, taking into  account that policies and measures to deal with climate change should be  cost-effective so as to ensure global benefits at the lowest possible cost. To  achieve this, such policies and measures should take into account different  socio-economic contexts, be comprehensive, cover all relevant sources, sinks  and reservoirs of greenhouse gases and adaptation, and comprise all economic sectors.  Efforts to address climate change may be carried out cooperatively by  interested Parties.

1. The Parties have a right to, and should, promote sustainable development. Policies and measures to protect  the climate system against human-induced change should be appropriate for the  specific conditions of each Party and should be integrated with national  development programmes, taking into account that economic development is essential for adopting measures to address climate change.
2. The Parties should cooperate to promote a supportive and open international  economic system that would lead to sustainable economic growth and development  in all Parties, particularly developing country Parties, thus enabling them  better to address the problems of climate change. Measures taken to combat  climate change, including unilateral ones, should not constitute a means of  arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination or a disguised restriction on  international trade ’ (United Nations 1992:pp.4-5).

Kyoto Protocol

(The following information on the Protocol was elicited from United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (2007a).

The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty legally committing those who have ratified it (Annex I Parties)¹ to targets for reducing

greenhouse gas emissions over the period 2008-2012 (a five percent reduction against a 1990 baseline).

The Protocol was adopted at the third Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC (COP 3) in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997. However, it did not come into force until 16 February 2005.

Rules for its implementation were adopted at Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC (COP7) 7 in Marrakesh in 2001, these rules are known as the Marrakesh Accords.

Most countries in the world have signed the Protocol to indicate that they agree to be part of the protocol process, but not all have ratified it and therefore agree to be bound by its requirements. The United States and Australia are two countries that have not ratified the Protocol to date.

The Protocol relies on three market mechanisms for its implementation, known as ‘flexibility mechanisms.’ These mechanisms are described as ‘Joint Implementation’ (JI), ‘Clean Development Mechanism’ (CDM) and ‘Emissions Trading’ (ET).

Technology

Under the UNFCCC, Parties are required to ‘take all practicable steps to promote, facilitate and finance, as appropriate, the transfer of, or access to, environmentally sound technologies and know-how to other Parties, particularly to developing countries to enable them to implement the provisions of the Convention (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 2007d:para.4).  Parties to the Kyoto Protocol have committed to similar provisions. The UNFCCC has established the ‘Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice’ (SBSTA) to support Parties in their efforts to meet these provisions.

Specifically, the SBSTA was established to ‘provide the Conference of the Parties and, as appropriate, its other subsidiary bodies with timely information and advice on scientific and technological matters relating to the Convention’ (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 1992: p.13).  Such scientific and technological matters encompass knowledge about the causes and impacts of climate change and strategies and technologies for mitigating and adapting to its impacts (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 1992).

The SBSTA is supported by the ‘Technology subprogramme.’ ‘The Technology subprogramme has the task of devising options for implementing the Convention and Protocol commitments on the development and transfer of climate-friendly technologies. It is responsible for supporting the deliberations of the SBSTA on this issue by, for example, organizing roundtables and other specialist meetings on technology and preparing documentation, including technical papers’ (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 2007b:para. 1).

The SBSTA draws on, and informs international, national and independent scientific organisations and programmes such as the World Climate Research Programme (WCRP), the International Geosphere–Biosphere Programme (IGBP), the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change (IHDP), the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the International Group of Funding Agencies for global change research (IGFA), International Energy Agency (IEA) and the Earth System Science Partnership (ESSP) (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 2007c).  These collaborative efforts have informed the identification of global research and capacity building needs and the development of global guidelines for systematic observation of the climate change system (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 2007c).

Initiatives of the SBTA, in conjunction with the Conference of Parties, have included establishing an ‘Expert Group on Technology Transfer (EGTT) and a ‘technology information clearing house known as TT:CLEAR (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 2007d: para.7-8).

Education, Training and Public Awareness

Under the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol, Parties commit to cooperate at international, national and regional levels to promote and implement  ‘educational and public awareness programmes’ and ‘public access to information’ on climate change and its effects. Parties also commit to promoting and implementing ‘public participation in addressing climate change and its effects’ and ‘training of scientific, technical and managerial personnel’ (United Nations 1992:p.10).  Similar commitments are required of Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (United Nations 1998).

A key initiative facilitated by the UNFCCC in support of Parties efforts to promoting education, training and public awareness is the ‘New Delhi work programme on Article 6 of the Convention’ (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 2007e:para.6). The New Delhi work programme is a five-year work programme aimed at ‘engaging all stakeholders, and

recommending a list of activities that could be undertaken at the national level to facilitate the implementation of Article 6 activities’ (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 2007e:para.6).

To date, in support of the New Delhi work programme, the UNFCCC has facilitated regional workshops in Europe, Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, and Asia and the Pacific.  The aim in these workshops has been to ‘advance the work on assessing needs, identifying priorities, sharing experience and exchanging information on related activities’ (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 2007e:para.7).  The UNFCCC has also facilitated the development of an ‘Information Network Clearing House - CC:iNet’ (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 2007f:para.1), which was launched in 2005.  The Information Network Clearing House is a web portal that serves as a directory for information sources on public information, education and training that relates to climate change (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 2007g).

Financial Mechanism

The ‘Financial Mechanism’ was established in recognition that different countries have different contributions to climate change, and capacities to mitigate and adapt to its consequences (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 2007h:para.1).  It provides a means of providing countries with fewer resources (developing countries) with assistance from countries with more resources (developed countries).

The Financial Mechanism and its funds (the Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF), Least Developed Countries Fund (LDCF) and the Adaptation Fund (AF)) are administered by the ‘Global Environment Facility’ (GEF) (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 2007h:para.2-4).

Capacity Building

Under the Convention, capacity building is recognised as a separate issue in addition to its contribution to the individual mechanisms described above, namely, technology transfer, education and outreach and the financial mechanism. This acknowledges the pervasive nature of capacity building and the need to ‘address capacity-building in an integrated manner.’ (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 2007i:para.2). This has resulted in the development of frameworks for capacity building in developing countries and countries with economies in transition.  These frameworks were developed with a

view to guiding ‘the climate change capacity-building activities of the GEF [Global Environment Facility] and other funding bodies’ (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 2007i:para.2).

Cooperation with International Organizations

The emphasis on cooperation with international organisations in the Convention is aimed at ensuring that the activities of the Convention are supported by ‘the best scientific information available’ (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 2007j:para.1). This emphasis is also aimed at ensuring that ‘the climate change activities of other international organizations are coherent with the Convention process and respond to the needs of the Parties, and that potential linkages and synergies with climate change matters are appropriately taken into account’(United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 2007j:para.1).

Initiatives that have been undertaken with a view to promoting cooperation with international organisation have included ‘the preparation of technical papers and reports that consider the interlinkages between climate change, biodiversity and desertification’ across the three Rio Conventions (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 2007j:para.3). A Joint Liaison Group (JLG) between the secretariats of the CBD, the UNCCD and the UNFCCC has also been established.  Further, the ‘Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice’ (SBSTA) provides a mechanism for information exchange among working groups under the convention and international and national organisations worldwide (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 2007j).

According to the Australian Greenhouse Office (2007:p.1), at 559.1 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (Mt CO2-e), Australia’s net greenhouse gas emissions in 2005 accounted for 1.5 per cent of global emissions.  The ‘energy’ sector was the largest contributor to these emissions, accounting for approximately 70% (with ‘stationary energy,’ ‘transport,’ and ‘fugitive energy’ accounting for 50%, 14% and 6% of net greenhouse gas emissions respectively).  ‘Agriculture’ was the second largest contributor, accounting for 16% of net emissions, followed by ‘landuse, landuse change and forestry’ (6%), ‘industrial processes,’ (5%) and ‘waste’ (3%).

General trends observed over the 1990 to 2005 period include a 2.2% increase in net emissions with the largest sectoral increase in emissions (42.6%) being attributed to the ‘stationary energy’ sector.  While emissions from ‘transport’ also increased (29.9%), there was a decline (73.9%) in emissions from the ‘landuse, land use change and forestry’ sector (Australian Greenhouse Office 2007:p.12)

The ultimate objectives of the Australian Government’s Climate Change Policy are:

• ‘To contribute to achieving global reductions in emissions that will avoid dangerous climate change; and
• To maintain the strength of Australia’s economy by:
• • providing competitive, clean, low emission and affordable energy to Australian households and businesses;
  • remaining a major supplier of energy and resources to international markets; and
  • preparing for the impacts of unavoidable climate change’ (Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet (2007:p.4).

In addition, it is the intention of the Australian Government to set a long term aspirational goal for reducing emissions in 2008 and to ‘introduce emissions trading, no later than 2012, as the key means to achieve that goal’ (Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet 2007:p.6). The Australian Government’s current target for reducing Australia’s contribution to emissions is 108 per cent of 1990 emissions by 2008-2012 (The Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet 2007).

According to the Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet (2007:pp.4-5) Australia’s Climate Change Policy embraces:

1. ‘reducing domestic emissions at least economic cost;’
2. ‘developing key low emissions technologies, improving energy efficiency and supporting households and communities to reduce emissions;’
3. ‘supporting world class climate science and adapting to the impacts of unavoidable climate change;’ and
4. ‘pursuing effective international responses to climate change that involve all major emitters, and that reflect our domestic policies.’

The Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet (2007:p.14) also states that ‘Public benefit and value for money will underpin the Government’s investments in research, development and demonstration of low emissions technologies.’

In addition, the Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet (2007:p.23) proposes that Australia’s international response to climate change should be underpinned by the following three principles:

1. ‘It must include all major emitters;
2. It must take account of differing national circumstances; and
3. It must be flexible enough to recognise and facilitate a range of policies to reduce emissions including market based approaches such as emissions trading, and measures to develop new technologies and promote energy efficiency measures.’

In relation to working towards a long term global aspirational goal for the stabilisation and reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, the Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet (2007:p.25) proposes that such a goal should:

1. ‘be informed by science and support the objective of avoiding dangerous climate change;
2. be ambitious but achievable; and
3. be supported by the majority of nations, including all major emitters.’

Regulation

Australia’s Climate Change Policy commits the Australian Government to:

• establishing ‘unitary national legislation’ and a single national regulator in support of its proposed ‘Australian Emissions Trading System’ (AETS) (Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet 2007:p.11);
• establishing ‘a series of short term annual caps for overall emissions beginning with the period from 2011 to 2020, consistent with meeting the long term aspirational goal for Australia’s emissions’(Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet 2007:p.33);
• introducing ‘Commonwealth comprehensive, robust and streamlined national mandatory emissions and energy reporting in 2007’ (The Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet 2007:p.10); and
• introducing ‘Euro 4 and Euro 5 emissions standards for vehicle engines’ (The Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet 2007:p.19).

Research & Systematic Observation

In support of its proposed emissions trading scheme, the Australian government has committed to:

• establishing a new ‘high quality and “fit for purpose” monitoring, reporting and verification system’ (The Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet 2007:p.10);
• modelling and analysing the economic impacts of various targets carefully before selecting a long term goal for emissions reductions (The Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet 2007:p.8)

The Australian government has also committed to investing in ‘research and development of strategically important low emissions technologies for Australia’ (The Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet 2007:p.13).  For example, the Australian Government recently established ‘The Low Emissions Technology Demonstration Fund’ (LETDF), which ‘supports industry-led projects to demonstrate technologies with the potential to deliver large-scale greenhouse gas emission reductions in the energy sector. To date, six projects have been supported, with total government funding of $410 million and approximately $2.6 billion leveraged from other sources (The Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet 2007:p.14).’

The Australian Government further supports research and development into low emissions technologies through programmes under the Backing Australia’s Ability – Building our Future through Science and Innovation’ (The Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet 2007:pp.13-14).

According to the Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet (2007:p.16), the Australian Government has committed to:

• strengthening its ‘ability to measure emissions from agriculture and land use;’
• improving ‘international and national accounting methodologies in areas such as harvested wood products and avoided deforestation;’ and
• advancing ‘research, development and analysis on new technologies and land management strategies.’ (The Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet 2007:p.16).

Further, the Australian Government draws attention to its support for ‘the first comprehensive national assessment of the economic, social and environmental risks and vulnerabilities of sectors and regions to the impacts of climate change (The Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet 2007:p.21)’ The findings of this assessment were used to develop the National Adaptation Framework.  This Framework was endorsed by the Council of Australian Governments in April 2007 (Council of Australian Governments 2007; The Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet 2007).

Education, Training and Public Awareness

Initiatives in the Australia’s Climate Change Policy aimed at promoting education, training and public awareness include:

• The ‘Minimum Energy Performance Standards and Labelling Programme’ (MEPS) (The Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet 2007:p.16). The aim in this programme is to provide consumers with reliable information on the ‘energy and greenhouse implications of products. According to the Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet (2007:p.16) this programme will deliver economic benefits of approximately $4.8 billion and abate over 200 million tonnes of greenhouse gas emissions by 2020.
• ‘The Small Business and Household Climate Change Action initiative’, which will enable consumers to ‘calculate their emissions online and offset them through the Government’s Greenhouse Friendly programme’ (The Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet 2007:p.18). This initiative will be supported by energy reforms endorsed by the Council of Australian Governments which will involve the introduction of ‘smart meters’ (The Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet 2007:p.18). Smart meters enable consumers to access information on the quantity and costs of energy they are using in real time. 

• The Australian Government is supporting ‘Solar Cities’ trials with a view to demonstrating ‘how decentralised energy systems can deliver savings to households and business and reduce greenhouse gas emissions’ (The Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet 2007:p.18).
• The Australian Government is supporting vehicle labelling requirements in conjunction with the ‘Green Vehicle Guide’ (The Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet 2007:p.19) These initiatives are aimed at reducing greenhouse emissions by providing consumers with information on the fuel efficiency and general environmental performance of new vehicles.

Economic and Financial Mechanisms

Australia’s Climate Change Policy highlights the following economic and financial mechanisms for reducing Australia’s contributions to greenhouse gas emissions:

• The Australian Government proposes to introduce the ‘Australian Emissions Trading System (AETS)’ no later than 2012 (The Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet 2007:p.11).
• The Australian Government will develop ‘standards for robust and transparent offsets to be accredited for use in the Australian Emissions Trading System’ (The Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet 2007:p.11).
• In the period prior to the implementation of the Australian Emissions Trading System, the Australian Government has stated that it will consider providing incentives for abatement action (The Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet 2007:p.33).
• The Australian Government has introduced an ‘Energy Efficiency in Government Operations (EEGO) policy,’ which establishes Green Lease Schedules (GLS) (The Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet 2007:p.17).  This policy aims to promote building designs that will result in environmental benefits and energy savings.

Capacity Building

The Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet (2007) draws attention to the following capacity building initiatives in Australia’s Climate Change Policy:

• The creation of the ‘Australian Greenhouse Office’ (AGO), a government organisation specifically dedicated to developing and implementing national climate change policies and programmes (The Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet 2007:p.12).  The responsibilities of this organisation include fulfilling Australia’s obligations under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and monitoring progress towards emissions targets.
• The undertaking of the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet to leading and coordinating the implementation of emissions trading.  This commitment will encompass taking responsibility for consulting with stakeholders nationally and internationally ‘to ensure that the final design of the emissions trading system meets Australia’s specific needs and is consistent with efforts to support progress towards an effective global response to climate change’ (The Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet 2007:p.9).
• The Australian Government’s commitment to ‘review all greenhouse programmes in 2008 to ensure that they are complementary to the emissions trading system’ (The Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet 2007:p.9).
• The Australian Government’s pledge to provide funding of $126 million over five years for ‘a new Australian Centre for Climate Change Adaptation and other activities consistent with the National Adaptation Framework’ (The Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet 2007:p.21).  A key focus of these initiatives will be to provide practical, accessible information to policy makers and planners on the impacts of climate change on the functioning of human and natural systems.
• The undertaking of the Australian Government to establish, within the Australian Treasury, ‘a capacity to advise the Government on the macroeconomic, sectoral and distributional implications for Australia of reducing greenhouse gas emissions’ (The Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet 2007:p.21).  This will enable predictions to be made about the effects of alternative greenhouse gas abatement targets over particular time periods.

International Cooperation

In recognition of the importance of international action on climate change, Australia’s Climate Change Policy outlines a suite of initiatives aimed at drawing on, and contributing to international efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to ameliorate or adapt to the impacts of climate change.  These initiatives include:

• Establishing dialogue with other nations that are developing or investigating emissions trading schemes, such as Canada and New Zealand.  For instance, the Australian Government has announced an intention to work jointly with New Zealand to investigate design issues associated with emissions trading schemes, ‘especially those surrounding the treatment of agriculture, forestry and offsets’ (The Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet 2007:p.21).
• A commitment to maximise the potential for beneficial linkages between the Australian Emissions Trading Scheme and other schemes internationally.  This commitment would create, for example, the opportunity for Australian firms to count ‘offshore emissions-reducing activities’ toward their net emissions (The Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet 2007:p.11).
• A pledge that Australia will continue participating in international low emissions technology forums, such as the Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum, the 20 nation Methane to Markets Partnership, the Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Partnership, the International Partnership for the Hydrogen Economy, and the Generation IV International Forum (The Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet 2007:p.15).
• Australia’s deepening cooperation with China to advance clean coal technology, as reflected in the Australia-China Joint Coordination Group on Clean Coal Technologies.  This working group provides a mechanism for Australia and China to share knowledge about clean coal technologies, to identify and implement joint clean-coal technology projects, and to identify areas where cooperation on the development, demonstration and use of clean coal technologies can be enhanced (The Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet 2007:p.29).
• The intention of the Australian Government to ‘use the APEC Leaders Meeting in Sydney in September 2007, as well as other international forums in which we participate, to build consensus on an effective way forward for tackling global climate change, that includes a range of policy approaches’ (The Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet 2007:p.25).

• The Australian Government’s commitment of over $94 million to the Asia Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate.   This commitment will fund 63 projects, including projects into ‘cleaner fossil energy, renewable energy, greater energy efficiency and carbon capture and storage’ (The Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet 2007:p.27).
• The Australian Government’s Global Initiative on Forests and Climate, which will commit $200 million to reducing deforestation, supporting reforestation and sustainable forest management.  This initiative recognises that deforestation accounts for ‘almost 20 per cent of man-made greenhouse gas emissions’ (The Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet 2007:p.28).
• Australia’s participation in ‘climate action partnerships’ with other nations.  To date, the Australian Government has established formal partnerships with United States, Japan, the European Union, New Zealand, China and South Africa.  These partnerships are focused on ‘developing practical joint activities to address climate change’ (The Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet 2007:p.28).
• The Australian Government’s allocation of $32.5 million in the 2007-08 Budget ‘for partnerships with international organisations on climate change adaptation and mitigation initiatives. Of the $32.5 million, $7.5 million will be provided to the Global Environment Facility’s Least Developed Countries Fund, which supports climate change adaptation, including in the Pacific’ (The Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet 2007:p.29).

According to the New Zealand’s Greenhouse Gas Inventory (Ministry for the Environment 2007:p.16), in 2005 New Zealand’s total greenhouse gas emissions were 77,159.1 gigagrams of carbon dioxide equivalent (Gg CO2-e), this represents a rise of 15,258.9 gigagrams (24.7 %) since 1990.  ‘Agriculture‘ was the largest contributor to 2005 emissions, accounting for 48.5%.  ‘Energy’ was the second largest contributor, accounting for 43.4%, followed by ‘industrial processes’ (5.6 %) ‘waste’ (2.4%) and ‘solvents’ (0.1%). ‘Landuse, landuse change and forestry’ was a sink for 31.8% of New Zealand’s total greenhouse gas emissions in 2005.

Some general trends observed over the 1990 to 2005 period include an increase of 42% in emissions from the energy sector, an increase of 31.8% in emissions from industrial processes, an increase of 15.2% in emissions from agriculture and a decrease of 25.9% in emissions from waste (Ministry for the Environment 2007:p.18).  Net removals of greenhouse gas emissions from landuse change increased by 29.1% waste (Ministry for the Environment 2007:p.18).

The New Zealand Government established a strategic climate change goal in 2002.  This goal was: ‘To enable New Zealand to make significant greenhouse gas reductions on business as usual and be set towards a permanent downward path for total gross emissions by 2012’ (Ministry for the Environment 2005:p.410).

However, the Ministry of Environment’s (2005) review of New Zealand’s climate change policies questions the feasibility of the Government’s 2002 goal in light of evolving information on some fundamental contextual changes in the underlying rates of emissions between 2002 and 2005.  Specifically, in light of information suggesting that :

1. ‘a. underling emissions growth is higher, and forestry planting rates are lower; and
2. compared to initial estimates, less forest can be counted as “Kyoto forests”’(Ministry for the Environment 2005:p.412).

These contextual changes were likely to result in New Zealand experiencing a net deficit of 36.2 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (Mt CO2e) in the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol, rather than a net credit as previously anticipated (Ministry for the Environment 2005:p.412).  This meant that some of the key policies announced in 2002 were likely to be less effective in delivering emission reductions than previously anticipated (Ministry for the Environment 2005).

As a consequence, the Ministry for the Environment (2005:p.413) recommended that ‘the Government may wish to consider replacing the current strategic goal with multiple objectives that it can use to guide its choice of climate change policies.’  The Ministry for the Environment (2005:p.413) added that:

‘A quantitative goal may not be helpful in guiding policy choice in the next 5 – 7 years, but that may not hold in the period beyond the next 15 – 20 years. Over a longer time period, technological change in areas such as agriculture for example, may allow New Zealand to pursue polices that do deliver an emissions profile that does take the country towards a “downward carbon path.”’

While the New Zealand Government has considered the question as to whether a new alternative strategic climate change goal should supersede that set in 2002, to date, an alternative goal has not been adopted (Office of the Minister Responsible for Climate Change Issues 2006).

According to New Zealand’s Ministry for the Environment (2005:p.76), policies for achieving the strategic climate change goal need to meet the following four principles:

1. ‘Policies must result in permanent reductions in emissions over the long term (environmental integrity). This principle was driven by the need to achieve real and sustainable emissions reductions across all commitment periods, for both international credibility reasons and as preparation for the longer term. Avoidance of emissions leakage and achieving permanent changes in behaviour were also objectives underlying this principle.
2. Policies need to be responsive to the changing international context and enable emitters to have time to adjust (flexibility). This principle reflected the uncertainty (in 2002) of the international framework, technological development and New Zealand’s changing emissions profile. Policies were to be globally focused in anticipation of wider acceptance of targets. Policy was to accommodate a shift over time from the situation where all sectors of the New Zealand economy could not be exposed to the full cost of emissions (because many countries would not have binding targets) to a situation where progressively more of the economy would be exposed to the full emissions price as it became clear that countries currently without targets would take on targets and gradually expose their economies to the international price of carbon.

1. Policies need to be consistent with a growing and sustainable economy. It was recognised that competitiveness of industries (including new entrants) over time remained important. The policies were expected to move progressively to a full cost on emissions when global competitiveness issues had been addressed. Also, policies were to avoid inappropriate distortional effects on investment and were to promote economic opportunities from climate change.
2. Policies will not disadvantage the vulnerable in our society. The final policy principle was that lower socioeconomic (or vulnerable) groups should not have to bear the burden of change arising from implementing Kyoto Protocol commitments or climate change policies.’

The Ministry of Environment’s (2005) review of New Zealand’s climate change policies has resulted in major changes to the approach that the New Zealand Government has taken to address climate change since 2005. As a result, in the New Zealand Government’s 4^th National Communication under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, the Ministry for the Environment (2006:p.6) describes NZ’s climate change policy as being in ‘a phase of transition.’

This transition is reflected in the New Zealand Government’s recent adoption a whole of government work programme ‘to develop alternative measures to the previously announced carbon tax, including consideration of emissions trading and new, possibly voluntary, arrangements to replace Negotiated Greenhouse Agreements.(Ministry for the Environment 2006:p.87).’

Regulation

Examples of regulatory mechanisms in support of  New Zealand’s current climate change policies include:

• In New Zealand Governments 2004 amendments to the Resource Management Act 1991 to give greater emphasis to Climate Change priorities.  In particular, the ‘Resource Management (Energy and Climate Change) Amendment Act 2004’ made explicit provisions for ‘all persons exercising functions and powers under the Act to have particular regard to: the effects of climate change; the efficient end use of energy; [and] the benefits to be derived from the use and development of renewable energy’ (Ministry for the Environment 2006:p.85).
• The New Zealand Government’s introduction of an ‘Emissions Trading and Renewable Preference Bill in December 2007 to establish a national emissions trading scheme and legislate for ‘the government’s preference for new renewable electricity generation’ (The New Zealand Government 2007:para.2).

• A review of the building regulations programme with a view to making ‘ongoing changes to the Building Code to improve the energy efficiency of residential and commercial dwellings.’  This review is ‘managed by the Department of Building and Housing, with input from the Energy Efficiency and Conservation Authority on energy efficiency and renewable energy issues’ (Ministry for the Environment 2006:p.59).
• An initiative to establish minimum energy performance standards by imposing a mandatory requirement for manufacturers to ‘display energy efficiency labels’ and ensure that ‘certain types of products meet minimum standards of energy efficiency.’  This initiative is one of two sub-programmes aimed at increasing the energy efficiency of products in use.  The second sub-programme is ‘Energy Star’ (Ministry for the Environment 2006:p.61).
• The introduction of ‘mandatory fuel standards and improving the quality of the vehicle fleet’.  ‘The regulations for 50 parts per million sulphur diesel and the Vehicle Equipment, Road Transport Rule are implemented. The Government has sought public comment on a reduction to 10–15 parts per million in 2009. Public consultation is currently occurring on additional controls to reduce the harmful emissions from vehicles entering, and already in, the vehicle fleet’ (Ministry for the Environment 2006:p.65)

Research & Systematic Observation

Examples of research and systematic observation highlighted in the New Zealand Government’s 4th National Communication under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (Ministry for the Environment 2006) include:

• The Memorandum of Understanding that has been established between the New Zealand Government and industry to manage sulphur hexafluoride emissions. This Memorandum is voluntary and non binding. On the basis of this Memorandum the New Zealand Government ‘has exempted users of sulphur hexafluoride from any application of its climate change policies’ in exchange for a commitment on behalf of industry to ‘move towards best practice in terms of their management of sulphur hexafluoride emissions.’ This commitment involves major users of sulphur hexafluoride meeting agreed targets for sulphur hexafluoride leakage rates and establishing monitoring and reporting regimes (Ministry for the Environment 2006:p.71).

• The New Zealand Government’s support for the ‘Agricultural Greenhouse Gas Inventory Research Programme.’ The aim in this programme being to ‘systematically reduce uncertainties and improve the estimates of agricultural methane and nitrous oxide national inventory estimates, for the purpose of reporting to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and fulfilling other reporting requirements’ (Ministry for the Environment 2006:p.71). 
• The launch, in 2003, of a voluntary partnership between the Government and the agricultural sector.  The partnership involves establishing a new agricultural sector body (the Pastoral Greenhouse Gas Research Consortium), a sector research strategy and collaborative funding between the parties.  The objectives of the resulting research programme are ‘to identify, establish and develop on-farm technologies for sheep, dairy and beef cattle and deer which lower methane emissions from New Zealand ruminants and nitrous oxide from grazing animal systems’ (Ministry for the Environment 2006:p.73).

Education, Training and Public Awareness

Recent initiatives aimed at promoting education, training and public awareness  highlighted by the Ministry for the Environment (2006) include:

• The ‘Energy Star’ subprogramme, a voluntary endorsement scheme which involves voluntary labelling of products to provide consumers with information on the energy efficiency of products such as ‘home appliances, office products and domestic refrigerators.’  This labelling will be based on ‘Energy Star energy-efficiency specifications.’ The aim in this subprogramme is ‘to increase the stock of energy efficient products by influencing the purchase process’ (Ministry for the Environment 2006:p.61).
• An initiative to ‘encourage the purchase of fuel-efficient vehicles by providing appropriate consumer purchasing information, covering both new and second hand vehicles.’  This initiative involves developing a website to provide consumers with a measure of the fuel economy of vehicles (litres per 100 kilometres). ‘Given the high proportion of used Japanese vehicles available, this work has required understanding the manufacturing standards for the Japanese domestic market. Associated fuel-efficiency labelling of vehicles at point of sale is being investigated’ (Ministry for the Environment 2006:p.67).

Economic and Financial Mechanisms

Some of the New Zealand Government’s initiatives for reducing greenhouse gas emissions through economic and financial mechanisms include:

• The New Zealand Government’s proposal to introduce a national emissions trading scheme (The New Zealand Government 2007).
• The ‘Emprove’ initiative launched in 2003, which provides financial resources for high energy-use-businesses to conduct energy audits and implement energy savings. This initiative is implemented through the Energy Efficiency and Conservation Authority and is aimed at achieving energy savings and raising awareness of the opportunities to improve profitability through good energy management (Ministry for the Environment 2006:p.59).
• The ‘EnergyWise home grants’ scheme, which provides financial assistance for residents to implement energy efficiency measures, such as fitting insulation, to existing homes.  The scheme is aimed at ‘improving the energy efficiency of approximately 100,000 pre 1977 homes occupied by low-income families.’  Between 1995 and 30 June 2005, the EnergyWise home grants scheme has provided $19 million to insulate 17,000 homes (Ministry for the Environment 2006:p.59).
• The New Zealand Government’s commitment to bearing the ‘cost of the agricultural sector’s non-carbon dioxide emissions, provided that the agricultural sector contributes to research into ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from agricultural activities’. This commitment recognises that ‘Finding proven, practical and cost-effective farm practices and technologies to reduce agricultural emissions remains a challenge.’  (Ministry for the Environment 2006:p.73)

Capacity Building

The Ministry of the Environment (2006) draws attention to the following capacity building initiatives in New Zealand’s Climate Change policies:

• The ‘Energy supply and renewables programmes: Renewable energy to the grid,’ which aims to increase the proportion of renewable energy contributing to the electricity grid or fed into local distribution networks. ‘The programme is designed to influence the decisions of existing or potential electricity generators. Typically the Energy Efficiency and Conservation Authority will provide information, advice and support on renewable energy projects to inform development proposals and facilitate better decision-making by local authorities. This includes providing submissions to local authority’s plans, commenting on renewable energy project proposals and supporting the Projects to Reduce Emissions process.’ Nationally, it is estimated that between 2001 and 2012 these programmes will add 10–15 petajoules9 of additional renewable energy to the grid (Ministry for the Environment 2006:pp.59-60).

• The New Zealand Government’s ‘structural reorganisation’ of the transport sector in 2004. This reorganisation included the establishment of a dedicated environmental policy group within the Ministry of Transport in late 2004 which has enhanced the ‘environmental policy capability’ of the transport sector (Ministry for the Environment 2006:p.62)
• The establishment of a formal contractual partnership between The Ministry for the Environment and Local Government New Zealand (LGNZ) to ‘assist local authorities to mitigate and adapt to climate change.’  The aim in this partnership is to improve awareness, understanding and acceptance of the effects of climate change within the local government sector, leading to increased long-term, sustainable behaviour change in relation to mitigating and adapting to climate change’ (Ministry for the Environment 2006:p.81).

International Cooperation

In addition to New Zealand’s international commitments under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol, the Ministry for the Environment (2006) highlights the following bilateral initiatives aimed at international cooperation:

• The collaborative efforts between New Zealand’s ‘Energy Efficiency and Conservation Authority and Australia’s government agencies to develop a joint appliance programme for 2005–07‘  to inform the development of ‘minimum energy performance standards’ and product labelling. The joint programme unifies current separate programmes operating in each country and expands the breadth of products subject to investigation and possible energy efficiency regulatory measures’ (Ministry for the Environment 2006:p.61).
• The launching of 26 projects under the New Zealand-United States partnership in 2003. This was followed by the launching of a further six projects in 2004.  The aim in the partnership is to ‘maximise United States–New Zealand business, research, and policy cooperation on climate change under nine priority areas: climate change science; technology development; registries; agricultural emissions abatement; business engagement; developing country assistance; Antarctic research; public education; [and] product and process standards’ (Ministry for the Environment 2006:p.87).

According to The People’s Republic of China’s Initial Communication on Climate Change (2004), China’s net greenhouse gas emissions were was 2,666 million tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (Mt CO2-e) in 1994.  On a per capita basis this represents about 0.6 tons of carbon dioxide equivalent. Thus, while China accounts for a larger than average proportion of greenhouse gas emissions on the basis of net emissions in aggregate, it accounts for a smaller than average proportion of greenhouse gas emissions on a per capita basis.

In 1994 the ‘energy sector’ accounted for 90.95% of China’s carbon dioxide emissions.  These emissions were entirely due to fossil fuel combustion. The ‘agricultural sector’ was the main contributor of China’s methane and nitrous oxide emissions, which make up 19.73% and 7.22% respectively of total greenhouse gas emissions² (The People's Republic of China 2004:p.38). In 1994 ‘Land-use change and forestry’ was a carbon sink for approximately 407 million tons of greenhouse gas emissions (The People's Republic of China 2004:p.36).

‘The strategic goal of China to respond to climate change is to make significant achievements in controlling greenhouse gas emissions, to enhance the capability of continuous adaptation to climate change, to promote climate change related science, technology and R&D to a new level, to remarkably raise public awareness on climate change, and to further strengthen the institutions and mechanisms on climate change.’ (National Development and Reform Commission 2007:p.26).

In support of this strategic goal, the Government of China has committed to achieving a range of objectives by 2010 (National Development and Reform Commission 2007:pp.26-29), these include:

• ‘a 20% reduction of energy consumption per unit GDP’;
• ‘raising the proportion of renewable energy (including large-scale hydropower) in primary energy supply up to 10%;’
• increasing ‘the forest coverage rate to 20%;’
• increasing ‘the area of improved grassland by 24 million hectares;’
• restoring ‘the grassland suffering from degradation, desertification, and salinity by 52 million hectares;’
• increasing ‘the efficient utilization coefficient of agricultural irrigation water to 0.5;’
• maintaining emissions of nitrous oxide from industrial processes at 2005 levels;
• working hard ‘to keep up with international advanced research on climate change in some fields;’
• significantly ‘enhancing the adaptation capacity of agriculture and forestry;’ and
• establishing ‘a suitable and high-efficient institutional and management framework to address climate change in the future.’

China’s National Development Reform Commission (2007:pp.23-26) lists the following principles as those that China will be guided by in addressing climate change:

• ‘To address climate change within the framework of sustainable development. It is not only the important common understanding of the international community, but also the basic option of all the parties to the Convention to address climate change. As early as in 1994, the Government of China formulated and published its sustainable development strategy --- China’s Agenda 21 --- A White Paper on Population, Environment and Development in the 21st Century. Later in 1996, the Government of China, for the first time, adopted sustainable development as the key guideline and strategic goal for its national social and economic development. In 2003, the Government of China further formulated the Programme of Action for Sustainable Development in China in the Early 21st Century. China will continue to actively tackle climate change issues in accordance with its national sustainable development strategy in the future.
• To follow the principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities” of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. According to this principle, developed countries should take the lead in reducing greenhouse gas emissions as well as providing financial and technical support to developing countries. The first and overriding priorities of developing countries are sustainable development and poverty eradication. The extent to which developing countries will effectively implement their commitments under the Convention will depend on the effective implementation by developed country of their basic commitments.
• To place equal emphasis on both mitigation and adaptation. Mitigation and adaptation are integral components of the strategy to cope with climate change. For developing countries, mitigation is a long and arduous challenge while adaptation to climate change is a more present and imminent task. China will strengthen its policy guidance for energy conservation and energy structure optimization to make efforts to control its greenhouse gas emissions. Meanwhile, China will take practical measures to enhance its capacity to adapt to climate change via key projects for ecosystem protection, disaster prevention and reduction and other key infrastructure construction.
• To integrate climate change policy with other interrelated policies. Since adaptation to climate change and mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions involve many aspects of the social and economic sectors, policies to address climate change and other related ones will only be effective if they are integrated. China will continue to consider energy conservation, energy structure optimization, ecological preservation and construction, and overall agricultural productivity advancement as important components of its national climate change policy. Therefore, China will give full consideration to climate change issues by integrating the policy of climate change mitigation and adaptation into its national social and economic development programme and pushing forward the policy in a coordinated way.
• To rely on the advancement and innovation of science and technology. Technological advancement and innovation are the effective way to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and enhance the capacity of adaptation to climate change. Realizing the leading and fundamental function of scientific and technological advancement in mitigation and adaptation to climate change, China will make great efforts to develop new and renewable energy technologies and new technologies of energy conservation, to promote carbon sink technologies and other  adaptive technologies, to accelerate scientific and technological innovation and importation, and to provide a strong scientific support to address climate change and promote the capacity of sustainable development.
• To participate in international cooperation actively and extensively. Global climate change is a serious common challenge to the international community. Though countries differ in the understanding of climate change and in ways and means of addressing this issue, they share a basic consensus for cooperation and dialogue to jointly address the challenges of climate change. China will continue to actively participate in the international negotiations of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and relevant activities of the IPCC. China is ready to strengthen international cooperation of addressing climate change, including cooperation of clean development mechanism and technology transfer, to join efforts with the international community to tackle global climate change.’

Regulation

China has introduced extensive laws and regulations to address climate change (Prime Ministerial Task Group on Emissions Trading 2007 cited in The Climate Institute (2007:p.2).  For example, with regard to the energy sector, legislation has been introduced to ‘establish and improve energy legal system, promote the implementation of China’s national energy development strategy, establish the legal status of medium and long term energy programme, promote the optimization of energy mix, mitigate greenhouse gas emissions from energy production and transformation’ (National Development and Reform Commission 2007:p.30).

Another example is given by the adoption of the ‘Renewable Energy Law of the People’s Republic of China’ in 2005 (National Development and Reform Commission 2007:p.31).  This Law sets out the duties and obligations of the Government, enterprises and users in the development and utilization of renewable energy.  In addition, it sets out a series of policies and measures, including a total volume target, mandatory grid connection, price management regulation, differentiated pricing, a special fund and favourable taxation arrangements.  Further, this Law commits the Government to achieving a target of renewable energy representing 16% of total energy use by 2020 (National Development and Reform Commission 2007:p.11).

Examples of regulatory mechanisms that have been applied in the agricultural sector include: ‘The Law of Environmental Protection of the People’s Republic of China’ and ‘The Law of Agriculture of the People’s Republic of China’.  The former stipulates that governments at all levels should ‘strengthen environmental protection in agriculture sector, and fertilizer, pesticide and plant growth hormones should be used rationally.  The latter stipulates that ‘entities running agricultural activities should take responsibility to land maintenance, rational utilization of fertilizers and pesticides, and improvement of land viability, and to prevent land pollution, damage or degeneration’ (The People's Republic of China 2004:p.115).

Research & Systematic Observation

China’s National Climate Change Programme (2007) highlights the importance of promoting research and systematic observation.  Accordingly, the National Development and Reform Commission (2007:p. 53) asserts that ‘climate system observation is the cornerstone of climate change scientific research.’  In support of this assertion, the National Development and Reform Commission (2007:p.128) points to the expanding observation and monitoring network that China has established over a period of some 50 years, which encompasses atmospheric, marine, terrestrial and remote sensing observation systems.

Education, Training and Public Awareness

China’s National Climate Change Programme (2007) lists several initiatives aimed at promoting education, training and public awareness about climate change.  These initiatives include:

• A commitment to ‘incorporate climate change publicity and education into the framework of basic education, adult education and higher education as an important component of China’s overall quality education’ (National Development and Reform Commission 2007:p.55).
• Establishing an initial system of education, including regular and non-regular education³, covering the fields of sustainable development, environment protection, climate change and so on’ (The People's Republic of China 2004:p.139).
• ‘China is considering integrating content of climate change into the regular educational system gradually, making education on climate change as a part of the education on capacity and ethics. For instance, in order to promote awareness on renewable energy, “Renewable Energy”, the teaching material for popularizing the knowledge, has been put into use to help students in primary and high schools to foster the concept and knowledge of sustainable development. This set of teaching material will be trial used in high and primary schools in the provinces of Shaanxi and Jiangsu as well as Tianjin, Beijing and Shanghai municipalities’ (The People's Republic of China 2004:p.140).
• ‘carrying out the education for adults on sustainable development, environmental protection and climate change by way of non-regular education’ (The People's Republic of China 2004:p.140). This has involved compiling teaching material and conducting training courses for a wide range of stakeholders, including  ‘leading officials of local administration, directors of local environmental protection bureaus, presidents and teachers of Green Schools and business managers as well as journalists.’ 

Economic and Financial Mechanisms

In China’s Initial National Communication on Climate Change (2004:p.80) a series economic and financial initiatives are emphasised as being ‘conducive to sustainable development.’   Such initiatives include:

• The provision of preferential treatment to energy-savings projects (reforming energy-saving technology and purchasing energy-saving equipment) such as ‘loan interest discount, differentiated interest rate exemption of value added tax for imports, reduction of enterprise income tax and accelerated depreciation.’
• The application of preferential tax to ‘the comprehensive utilization of resources such as the reuse of coal gangue, fly ash, stone coal and oil shale for power generation, cement production and new wall material production.’
• The application of tax reduction or exemptions to ‘the power generation from municipal garbage, wind power generation and other rural renewable energy projects.’

Capacity Building

China’s National Climate Change Programme (2007:pp.55-56) highlights the importance of capacity building at various institutional levels in addressing climate change.  This is reflected in the following commitments made by the China’s Government:

• to establish the ‘National Leading Group to Address Climate Change, which will be responsible for ‘determining key national strategies, guidelines and measures on climate change, as well as coordinating and resolving key issues related to climate change; ‘
• to establish and strengthen the capacity of The Office of the Leading Group within the National Development and Reform Commission;
• to establish ‘a regional administration system for coordinating the work in response to climate change;’
• that ‘Local governments at different levels shall enhance the organization and leadership on local responses to climate change, and formulate and implement local climate change programmes as a matter of priority;’ and
• to establish and make ‘effective use’ of a ‘Clean Development Mechanism Fund (CDMF).’ This fund will enable levies collected from ‘Clean Development Mechanism’ projects to be used ‘to support the country’s activities on climate change such as climate change related science and technology research, and raising national adaptation and mitigation capacity.’ The Clean Development mechanism fund will also be used to support the implementation of China’s national climate change programme.

International Cooperation

In China’s National Climate Change Programme (2007:p.58) the National Development and Reform Commission recognises that international cooperation will be required to address climate change and states that China is ‘ready to strengthen cooperation with all countries.’ In addition, the Commission states that China ‘would like to appeal to the developed countries to sincerely fulfil their commitments under the Convention to provide financial assistance and transfer technology to developing countries so as to enhance their capacity to address climate change.’

Further, the National Development and Reform Commission (2007:p.60) expresses China’s intention to work with the international community to address climate change through the legal frameworks of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol.  This is supported by China’s intention to participate in regional cooperation in ways that are complementary to these legal frameworks.  For instance, through initiatives such as the ‘Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate’ (The Climate Institute 2007:p.5). China is a founding member of this international partnership ‘which aims to develop and share climate change mitigating technologies’ (Ministry for the Environment 2005:p.46).

China’s National Climate Change Programme (2007) recognises the role of international cooperation in:

• enhancing capacity building (p.13);
• enhancing research and development and transfer of new technologies nationally and internationally (p.13, p.25, p.28, p.32, p.44); and
• enhancing education, training and public awareness on climate change issues (p.55).

This is consistent with China’s National Communication on Climate Change (2004:p.124), which states that the Government ‘attaches great importance to international co-operation on climate change and has engaged wide exchanges and co-operations with many countries and international organizations in this field.’  This statement is supported by the following initiatives:

• China signing an agreement with the United states on ‘energy conservation and renewable energy co-operation, which has helped both countries exchange and co-operate in more than 10 projects in these two areas’ (The People's Republic of China 2004:p.125).
• The Chinese government’s involvement with the Japanese and Norwegian governments to implement ‘four projects of Activities Implemented Jointly (AIJ), namely, the model project for energy conservation in electric furnace used for ferro-alloy refining in Liaoyang, the model project for utilization of waste heat from  incineration of refuse in Harbin, installation of coke dry quenching facility in Capital Iron and Steel Corporation, and CFBC/CHP pilot project in Henan Shangqiu Thermal Power Plant’ (The People's Republic of China 2004:pp.124-125).

According to the 2000 World Resources Institute, ‘Brazil is the eighth largest emitter of greenhouse gases and the third largest emitter in the developing world after China and India,’ (La Rovere and Santos Pereira 2005:para.1). In 1994, Brazil’s ‘net anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions were estimated at 1,030 million tonnes of carbon dioxide, 13.2 million tonnes of methane, and 0.55 million tonnes of nitrous oxide (Ministry of Science and Technology 2004:p.88). However, Brazil has a ‘low overall energy intensity and high proportion of renewable energy’ (Ministry for the Environment 2005:p.44).

Brazil’s ‘energy sector’ accounted for only a small proportion of greenhouse emissions in 1994 (less than 25% of carbon dioxide and less than 5% of methane and nitrous oxide emissions). The majority of emissions from the ‘energy sector’ were carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel combustion; however ‘because of the large share of renewable energy in the Brazilian energy matrix...the share of CO2 emissions from the use of fossil fuels in Brazil is relatively small’ (Ministry of Science and Technology 2004:p.87).

‘Forestry and the conversion of forests and grasslands to agricultural uses’ accounted for 75% of carbon dioxide emissions, 14% of methane emissions, and 2.3% of nitrous oxide emissions (Ministry of Science and Technology 2004). The ‘agriculture sector’ was the major contributor of methane (77%) and nitrous oxide emissions (92%). The main source of methane emissions was ‘enteric fermentation (eructation), almost all of which from the cattle herd’. Nitrous oxide emissions were ‘either from manure deposition in pasture or, in a smaller scale, from fertilizer application to agricultural soils’ (Ministry of Science and Technology 2004).

‘Industrial processes’ and the ‘waste sector’ accounted for less than 5% of carbon dioxide emissions and less than 10% of methane and nitrous oxide emissions.⁴

The Brazilian Government’s ‘2000-2003 Government Multi-Year Plan – PPA’ established a Climate Change Program (Ministry of Science and Technology 2004:p.237). The objective in this Program is ‘to produce scientific information related to greenhouse gas emissions to support the definition of a policy for activities related to climate change. (Ministry of Science and Technology 2004:p.239).

Brazil’s Ministry of Science and Technology (2004:p.215), draws attention to the following principle from the Brazilian Constitution as a key principle underpinning Brazil’s Climate Change Program: ‘All have the right to an ecologically balanced environment, which is an asset of common use and essential to a healthy quality of life, and both the Government and the community shall have the duty to defend and preserve it for present and future generations ... In order to ensure the effectiveness of this right, it is incumbent on the Government to ... promote environmental education at all school levels and public awareness of the need to preserve the environment.’

Brazil’s Ministry of Science and Technology (2004) also draws attention to the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities.  Specifically, the State Minister of Science and Technology, in the Preface to Brazil’s Initial Communication on Climate Change states that:

‘A priori, it should be highlighted that, according to the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities among nations and their respective capacities, the initiative of addressing climate change and its adverse effects should come from developed countries, considering their historical emissions. Developing countries have no commitments to reduce or limit their anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions, as established by the Convention and confirmed by the Kyoto Protocol’ (Ministry of Science and Technology 2004).

Another principle underpinning Brazil’s Climate Change Program, and its environmental management more generally, is the principle of ‘protector-receives.’ According to Brazil’s Ministry of Science and Technology (2004:p.258), ‘the protector-receives principle rewards those who forego economic opportunity to preserve a resource of collective and public interest…In situations of poverty, it is more effective to invert [the ‘user-polluter-pays’] concept and apply the principle of “protector-receives”, since in these countries the disposition to receive is much greater than the disposition to pay.’

Regulation

In Brazil’s Initial National Communication to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Brazil’s Ministry of Science and Technology (2004:p.238) states that, ‘it is recognised that the Brazilian environmental legislation is one of the most advanced in the world, with clear legal guidelines for pursuing sustainable development, in spite of the institutional and administrative difficulties posed to its broad implementation.’ The Ministry provides several examples to support this statement, including:

• In 1981, ‘the publication of Law no. 6,938, which provides for a National Environmental Policy, its objectives and mechanisms of formulation and application.  This law, which establishes environmental licensing as an instrument of the policy, addresses connections between economic development and environmental preservation’ (Ministry of Science and Technology 2004:p.238).
• In 1998, the passing of law no. 9,605, the Environmental Crimes Law, which represents a change in the system of sanctions in the current legislation….This law provides for penal and administrative sanctions for conduct and activities which damage the environment, as well as consolidates environmental legislation, with typification of environmental crimes and infractions and with their respective penalties duly stipulated’ (Ministry of Science and Technology 2004:p.238).

In addition, the Ministry asserts that regulation underpins many of Brazil’s policies and programs in relation to deforestation, air quality and air pollution by motor vehicles. While the Ministry observes that these programs ‘do not have the direct objective of reducing greenhouse gas emissions’ it argues that such programs ‘will have impacts on emission from different sources’ (Ministry of Science and Technology 2004p:237).

Research & Systematic Observation

There is a strong emphasis on research and systematic observation in Brazil’s Climate Change Program. According to Brazil’s Ministry of Science and Technology (2004:p.207), Brazil is ‘undertaking and cooperating in scientific research and in systematic observations in order to clarify, reduce or eliminate the remaining uncertainties regarding the causes, effects, magnitudes and trends over time of climate change.’

Brazil’s Ministry of Science and Technology (2004:p.39) highlights the following as key activities under the Brazilian Climate Change

Research Program:

1. Studies on vulnerability to climate change and adaptation to impacts of climate change in the areas of agriculture, fields, forests, water resources, coastal resources, human health, species of flora and fauna, and fish.
2. The development of forecasting models to monitor climate changes with the goal of ‘reducing uncertainties about the causes, effects, magnitude and changes over time of climatic changes and the economic and social consequences of various response strategies.’
3. The preparation of a National Inventory of Anthropogenic Greenhouse Gas Emissions in the sectors of energy, industry, solvent use, agriculture, land-use change and forestry, and waste treatment.
4. The implementation of a permanent system for monitoring greenhouse gas emissions.
5. The development of a ‘Greenhouse effect information system’ with the goal of maintaining and improving ‘existing information systems about the issue of greenhouse gases and government actions devoted to their control as well as the implementation of education, awareness and information campaigns on the issue.’
6. Studies on climate change mitigation to support the creation of a national climate mitigation plan ‘containing measures and policies in the sectors of energy, industry, agriculture, forests and waste treatment, in order to implement a national strategy for assessing the best opportunities in terms of a cost-benefit analysis.’

In addition, teams of Brazilian researchers are participating in international research programs related to climate change including the ‘Global Climate Observing System, the Global Ocean Observation System, and the Pilot Research Moored Array in the Tropical Atlantic’ (Ministry of Science and Technology 2004:p.207).

Education, Training and Public Awareness

According to Brazil’s Ministry of Science and Technology (204:p.215), environmental education is enshrined in the Brazilian Constitution, which states that: ‘All have the right to an ecologically balanced environment ... In order to ensure the effectiveness of this right, it is incumbent on the Government to ... promote environmental education at all school levels and public awareness of the need to preserve the environment.’

In support of this constitutional right, and Brazil’s commitments to the United Nations Convention on Climate Change, the Brazilian Government has undertaken a range of initiatives, including:

• A National Environmental Education Policy – PNEA. PNEA is aimed at ‘promoting environmental education in all sectors of society. In defining responsibilities and putting them on the agenda of the various sectors of society, the National Environmental Policy -PNEA institutionalizes environmental education, legalises its principles, transforming it into an object of public policies, and provides societies with an instrument for demanding the promotion of environmental education’ (Ministry of Science and Technology 2004:p.215).
• A National Environmental Education Program – PRONEA. ‘The activities of PRONEA are organized around two perspectives: the first, devoted to the deepening and systematization of Environmental Education for current and future generations, delivered through the school system; and the second oriented to good environmental management, seeking to create public awareness and the production of appropriate information throughout society’ (Ministry of Science and Technology 2004:p.215).
• The establishment of Greenhouse effect information systems as a key action in Brazil’s Climate Change Program. The goal for these systems is to ‘maintain and improve existing information systems about the issue of greenhouse gases and government actions devoted to their control, as well as the implementation of education, awareness and information campaigns on the issue’ (Ministry of Science and Technology 2004:p.239).
• The creation of a Brazilian Climate Change Forum in 2000, which ‘seeks to promote the awareness and mobilization of society about global climate change’ (Ministry of Science and Technology 2004:p.215).
• The Brazilian Ministry of Science and Technology Internet site on climate change.  According to the Ministry (2004;p.215), this site has increased public awareness about climate change ‘through making available information about the entire process of negotiation for the Convention, the main references for the climate science, and the preparation of the National Communication.’

Economic and Financial Mechanisms

The Brazilian Government has implemented a number of economic and financial mechanisms related to environmental sustainability, which it expects to contribute to managing climate change (Ministry of Science and Technology 2004:pp.256-259). These include:

• Fiscal incentives for forestation and reforestation.
• The Green Protocol, which was launched in 1995. The two objectives of the Protocol were ‘to give priority in the allocation of public resources through credit operations or tax benefits to projects with the greatest potential for social and environmental self-sustainability; and avoiding the use of such resources in projects that contribute to greater environmental damage in Brazil’ (Ministry of Science and Technology 2004:p.257).
• The Ecological ICMS, which uses a proportion of tax revenue from States goods and services (the ICMS) to ‘stimulate municipalities to maintain conservation areas and develop appropriate environmental practices.’ In particular, it uses the “protector-receives” principle to compensate ‘those municipalities that give up the right to generate products and services so that society can enjoy the environmental resource and services on its territory’ (Ministry of Science and Technology 2004:p.258).
• Restrictions on rural credit for environmental offenders.
• Tax incentives to stimulate production of smaller, more efficient cars that would be both accessible to people with lower incomes and reduce carbon emissions (Ministry of Science and Technology 2004:p258).

Capacity Building

The objective of Brazil’s Climate Change Program emphasises the production of scientific information to support policy activities.  Hence, Brazil’s Climate Change Research Program is, in a fundamental sense, directed towards capacity building.  This is reflected in the indicator that has been selected for the Climate Change Program objective, which is to increase the number of institutions with the capacity to address the climate change issue (Ministry of Science and Technology 2004:239).

The Brazilian Government has implemented a range of initiatives aimed at building capacity to address climate change.  Such initiatives include:

• The contributions of Brazilian cities to the Cities for Climate Protection campaign. This campaign, launched in 1991, ‘is an international campaign to mobilize local government to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and support the international collective effort of municipal governments in relation to national governments and the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change’ (Ministry of Science and Technology 2004:p.256). By 2004 six Brazilian cities were formally participating in the campaign.
• The creation of the National Electrical Energy Conservation Program (PROCEL) in 1985.  According to the Brazilian Government this program ‘was the first systematic initiative in the promotion of the efficient use of electrical energy in the country, through the coordination of actions to rationalize use of electrical energy throughout the country, seeking to maximize their results and promote a broad spectrum of new initiatives, subject to rigorous tests of opportunity, priority and economic viability’ (The Federal Republic of Brazil 2007:p.30).
• The national training program of the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development in conjunction with the Interamerican Institute for Global Change Research (IAI).  A key objective of this program is to increase the capacity of Brazilian scientists to participate in national and international research programs on climate change (Ministry of Science and Technology 2004:p.233-234).
• Government support for the participation of Brazilian scientists in international organisations such as the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and the Interamerican Institute for Global Change Research (IAI) (Ministry of Science and Technology 2004:p.233).  The Institute for Global Change Research is an intergovernmental organization dedicated to coordinate research throughout the Americas.  The goal of the Institute is to develop ‘the capacity and understanding of the integrated impact of present and future global change on regional and continental environments in the Americas and to promote scientific cooperation and informed action at all levels’ (Ministry of Science and Technology 2004:p.233).

International Cooperation

Brazil’s Climate Change Program emphasises the need for international action on climate change in accordance with the principle of differentiated responsibility.  This is reflected, for example, in the contribution of Brazil to range of cooperative international programs highlighted above in the sections on Research and Systematic Observation and Capacity Building.  For instance, the contributions of Brazilian researchers to the Global Climate Observing System, the Global Ocean Observation System, the Pilot Research Moored Array in the Tropical Atlantic, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and the Interamerican Institute for Global Change Research (IAI). Brazil’s commitments to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate change and the involvement of Brazil’s cities in the Cities for Climate Protection campaign further exemplify Brazil’s participation in international efforts to address climate change.